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Spanish – topics & flashcards

A spiral grammar course that builds Spanish from cognates all the way to the subjunctive – one thinking step at a time.

90
tracks
9
thematic parts
1,034
flashcards
9
downloadable decks
Part 1

Cognates & first sentences

Tracks 1–9
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  1. 1Introduction & how to use the course#

    Overview of Language Transfer's "thinking method." How to study: pause and build each sentence yourself before hearing the student, don't memorize, don't write anything down, study when rested, ~20 min/day, "think slowly to learn quickly." No Spanish taught yet.

  2. 2Convertible words (-al) & Spanish pronunciation#

    English–Spanish cognates ("convertible words"): words ending in -al come from Latin and are the same in Spanish, stressed on the last syllable. Spanish vowels are always /ah/ /eh/ /ee/ /oh/ /oo/; Spanish is phonetic. First words: es (is), no (no/not) and building "it is (not) X."

  3. 3More convertible endings (-ante/-ente, -mente, -ible/-able) & the /j/→/kh/ rule#

    Words ending -ant/-ent-ante/-ente; add -mente for "-ly"; -ible/-able words convert directly. The English /j/ sound becomes a throaty /kh/ (general, global). Notes real = real/royal and normalmente = normally/usually.

  4. 4quiero, the -ion & -ation→-ar rules#

    te quiero (I love you, lit. I want you) → quiero (I want). Words ending -ion are the same with the stress on the end; -tion-ción; and dropping -ción + adding -r gives ~1000 verbs (preparación→preparar). Introduces con (with), me (me/myself), reflexive infinitives (prepararme).

  5. 5yo, word order, lo, the rolling r, -ence/-ance→-encia/-ancia#

    yo (I) used only for emphasis; word order for negation (yo no quiero). Object pronoun lo (it/him). Pronunciation of single r vs double rr (pero vs perro). New rule: -ence/-ance-encia/-ancia (experiencia). experimentar = to experiment/experience.

  6. 6Silent h, ahora, voy, the v/soft-b sound#

    The letter h is always silent. ahora (now) = a (to) + hora (hour). voy (I go, irregular) and the v-as-soft-b pronunciation; vamos (let's go). Deducing vocab from partial cognates (visitation→visitar).

  7. 7voy a + infinitive (near future) & verbs of movement#

    Using voy a + infinitive for the future; verbs of movement (voy, pasar) take an extra a before a following infinitive, while non-movement verbs (quiero, intento) don't. New: ver (to see), los (them), algo (something), mostrar/demostrar (to show/demonstrate).

  8. 8Gender (lo/la), quiere, questions, venir, debo#

    Feminine la (her/it/you-formal-fem); gender belongs to the word, not the object; casa (house). quiere (he/she/you-formal wants); questions are made by intonation alone. venir (to come), por qué (why/because), debo (I owe → I must), las (them, fem).

  9. 9saber, sí/si, block-by-block long sentences#

    saber (to know), (yes) vs si (if). Building long nested sentences block by block. Exception: explanation = explicación, to explain = explicar (not explanación). New: invitar, imaginar, justificar.

Part 2

The present tense & stem-changing verbs

Tracks 10–18
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  1. 10Verb endings -ar/-er/-ir, forming "I" (-o), tener family#

    All infinitives end in -ar/-er/-ir; the "I" form drops the ending, adds -o, and stresses the penultimate syllable. comer (to eat), tener (to have, irregular tengo) and the -tener family (contener, obtener, mantener, sostener, entretener). Present tense can express the future with a time word (mañana). New: tarde, más, más tarde, con.

  2. 11-ar verbs across all persons; the productive verb group#

    The -ar group is the open, productive class (new verbs like tuitear, googlear join it). Key vowel /a/: -o (I), -a (he/she/it/formal), -an (they/you-plural), -as (you-informal). Object pronouns (me, lo, la…) go before the conjugated verb, or may attach to an infinitive. New: durar, mucho, exagerar, masticar, morder, hablar.

  3. 12-er/-ir verbs (key vowel /e/); feminine noun endings; double objects#

    -er/-ir verbs use key vowel /e/ (vende/venden/vendes). Feminine noun endings -ción and -idad (= English -ity); adjectives agree (generoso/-a/-os/-as). Two object pronouns together put the personal one first (me lo venden). New: vender, nos (us), and many -idad nouns.

  4. 13hacer, qué, poder, irregular -go, esperar; -ary→-ario#

    hacer (to do/make), qué (what), ¿qué haces? as "how's it going?". puedo/poder (I can/to be able). Irregular "-go" I-forms (salgo). esperar (to wait/hope); the vowel-harmony trap – always return to the infinitive. Rule: -ary → -ario (necesario, contrario). New: comprar, llegar.

  5. 14sé, él/ella, tener que, poner & the -pose family#

    Irregular (I know); él (he), ella (she), ll = /y/. tener que = have to (tengo que); full tener/venir person forms. poner (to put, pongo) and the -pose→poner family (componer, suponer, imponer, exponer, oponer). Contrast debo (must) vs tengo que (have to). New: cuándo.

  6. 15The e→ie stem change explained; pensar, entender, perder#

    When a stressed e in the verb root splits into ie (querer→quiero, tener→tiene, venir→viene). Visible between languages: tempo/tiempo, concert/concierto, November/noviembre. pensar (to think; pensar + infinitive = to plan to), entender (to understand), comprender, perder (to lose).

  7. 16The o→ue stem change; empezar; dormir, encontrar, mostrar#

    Stressed root o splits into ue (poder→puedo). Seen between languages: port/puerto, force/fuerza, school/escuela, corp/cuerpo, new/nuevo, pueblo, población, muerte/muerto. empezar (to start), dormir→duermo (me duermo = I fall asleep), encontrar→encuentro (to find), mostrar→muestro (una muestra = a sample).

  8. 17Stem-change recap; colgar; Arabic al- words; tomar#

    Recap of e→ie (querer, perder) and o→ue (colgar→cuelgo, to hang). Words beginning al- come from Arabic (alcohol, azúcar, arroz, álgebra, aceite, aceituna, alfombra, almohada). tomar (to take, also to drink); beber, bebida.

  9. 18The "we" forms: -amos / -emos / -imos#

    "We" endings: -amos / -emos / -imos – the only place -er and -ir verbs differ. Stem vowels don't split in the "we" form (no stress). preferir (prefiero/preferimos), vivir (to live), aquí/acá (here), dónde (where), siempre (always). New: verano.

Part 3

The perfect past (haber) & the pronoun system

Tracks 19–24
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  1. 19Working backwards from vamos; ir; noche, carne, y#

    Deriving va/vas/van by working backwards from vamos; ir (to go, very irregular). Future/time words: esta noche (tonight). Feminine nouns ending -e: noche, carne (meat). y (and), bueno (good), bien (well).

  2. 20Future with the present tense; ver forms; next week#

    Talking about the future with the present, either via time context (pronto = soon; mañana, más tarde, esta noche) or ir a + infinitive (vamos a verla). Full forms of ver (veo/ve/ves/vemos/ven). la semana que viene (next week), semana (week), nos vemos (see you).

  3. 21The perfect past with haber; -ado participles#

    Talking about the past with the present of haber (to have, auxiliary): he/hemos/ha/has/han (remembered from the vowels of haber). Past participle of -ar verbs = drop -ar, add -ado (hablar→hablado). This "have"-past is used more in Spanish than English. por (for, of duration), por favor (please). New: anticipar, terminar.

  4. 22-ido participles; the two pronoun sets#

    Participles of -er/-ir verbs end in -ido (vendido, perdido, venido). Introduces the full subject-pronoun set – yo, tú, usted, él, ella, nosotros/nosotras, ellos/ellas, ustedes – versus the object set (me, te, lo, la, los, las, nos). tú vs te = subject vs object "you".

  5. 23Masculine -ma nouns (Greek); sentir; reflexive perfect#

    Words ending -ma are masculine (from Greek): el problema, el sistema, el programa, el aroma, el clima, el panorama. sentir (to feel/perceive). Reflexive perfect: me he perdido (I got lost), nos hemos perdido.

  6. 24dar; combining indirect + direct objects#

    dar (to give; doy/da/dan/das). Combining two object pronouns, personal one first: me lo dan (they give it to me), te lo doy mañana. ustedes (you-plural). Word order of usted/yo/él is very flexible.

Part 4

Reflexives, numbers, time & ser vs estar

Tracks 25–35
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  1. 25me/te/nos as "to/for/from me"; cooking; time; quedar; numbers 6–10#

    Object pronouns also cover to/for/from (no separate word): me habla, me lo compra. cocina (kitchen), cocinar (to cook). Telling time: a las seis (at 6). Numbers seis, ocho, nueve, diez. quedar (to remain) → me quedo (I stay); hasta (until), hasta la vista.

  2. 26quedarse; deber; poder (we); numbers; llamarse#

    Reflexive quedarse across persons (voy a quedarme, tengo que quedarme). deber/debemos, poder/podemos. siete (seven), septiembre. llamar (to call/phone) → me llamo (my name is), ¿cómo te llamas? (what's your name?), cómo (how).

  3. 27Adjectives after the noun; a/the; words for "car"; colours#

    Adjectives follow the noun (la situación global). Articles un/una (a), el/la/los/las (the). Many words for car: coche, carro, auto, automóvil, máquina. grande (big), plural adjectives (grandes). en (in/on), rojo (red).

  4. 28ser: es/son; adjective agreement; -ive→-ivo; muy#

    es/son (is/are, from ser); adjective agreement caro/cara/caros/caras. caro (expensive) vs carro (car). Nouns like profesor/profesora, doctor/doctora; consonant plurals in -es. Rule -ive → -ivo (positivo, atractivo, intensivo…). muy (very). Slang for money: dinero, plata, pasta.

  5. 29ser vs estar: characteristic vs state; estar forms#

    The two "to be" verbs: ser (characteristics) vs estar (states) – not "permanent vs temporary." un ser humano (a human being). estar forms: estoy/está/están/estás/estamos (irregular stress on the ending). cansado (tired) and muerto (dead) take estar (states).

  6. 30Using estar: how/where are you; deber for probability; porque#

    ¿cómo estás? (how are you), ¿dónde estás? (where are you) – estados use estar. Future/other verbs with estar (voy a estar, tienen que estar). debe/deben for probability ("must be"). porque (because) vs por qué (why).

  7. 31e- before s+consonant; ser fully; the four -oy verbs; ¿cómo es? vs ¿cómo está?#

    Spanish adds e- before words starting s+consonant (España, español, estudiante, especial, estricto, espectacular). Full ser: soy/es/son/somos/eres. The only four -oy "I" forms: voy, doy, estoy, soy. ¿cómo es? (what's he like – characteristic) vs ¿cómo está? (how is he – state).

  8. 32ser/estar with the same adjective; de; free/married/busy/worried#

    Adjectives whose meaning flips with ser/estar (aburrido = boring vs bored). de (from/of). libre (free), casado (married), ocupado (busy), preocupado (worried). de dónde (where from); ¿de dónde eres? Using "soy una persona…" as a safety net.

  9. 33More ser/estar nuance; listo; tan; bueno; feliz#

    listo = ready (estar) / smart (ser). tan (so). bueno with people: ser = a good person/good at; estar = attractive/in good form. feliz (happy), felicidad (happiness), feliz navidad.

  10. 34Present continuous (estar + gerund)#

    Right-now actions: estar + gerund. Gerund = -ar→-ando (hablando), -er/-ir→-iendo (comiendo). Used only for what's happening now (not the future, unlike English -ing). desayunar (to have breakfast), desayuno. Objects attach to the gerund (estoy preparándolo).

  11. 35estar + siendo; honesto#

    estoy siendo sincero (I am being sincere) – gerund of ser is siendo. honesto (honest). More practice resisting English -ing where Spanish uses the plain present.

Part 5

Future & conditional; gustar-type verbs; prepositions

Tracks 36–45
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  1. 36The future tense (infinitive + haber endings)#

    Future = whole infinitive + -é/-emos/-á/-ás/-án (the haber sounds), stressed on the end – "pushing the accent into the future": comeré, iré, será, estaré. Also recomendar. Note the future tense is used less than present / ir a.

  2. 37Indirect object le/les; darse cuenta#

    le/les = to him/her/them/you-formal (lo,la,los,las become le,les when the sense is "to/for"). me doy cuenta (I realize), darse cuenta, cuenta (account), ¿te das cuenta? le he hablado (I've spoken to him).

  3. 38Reflexive se; quedarse & darse cuenta across persons#

    se = himself/herself/itself/themselves/oneself (lo/la/los/las → se for "-self"). se queda (he stays), quedarse, quiere quedarse; se da cuenta. Dictionary lists reflexive verbs as ...-se.

  4. 39Prepositions + pronouns; para; mí/ti; decir#

    Prepositions take subject pronouns (con él, para él) except and ti (para mí, para ti, de mí, de ti). para (for). "with you guys" = location → está con ustedes. hacer un favor; decir (to say/tell), quiero decir. le/les replace to/for (les compro).

  5. 40Prepositions differ across languages; enamorarse, pensar en, soñar con; conmigo/contigo#

    Verbs pick different prepositions: enamorarse de (fall in love "of"), pensar en (think "in/on"), soñar con (dream "with"). soñar→sueño. The letter ñ. conmigo (with me), contigo (with you); depender de (depend on).

  6. 41The conditional ("would"); reflexive se for "get/become"#

    The conditional: infinitive + -ía/-ías/-ía/-íamos/-ían (I joins he/she). bailar (to dance), bailaré/bailaría. Reflexive se to express "get/become": se transforma (gets transformed), se contamina (gets contaminated). que = that. me imagino que…

  7. 42gustar ("to be pleasing"); podría (could)#

    gustar works backwards: me gusta = "it pleases me" = I like it; me gustan (plural). me gustaría (I would like). Contracted conditional podría (could). mi (my), mi casa.

  8. 43habría (would have); debería (should)#

    habría + participle = would have (habría ido, habría podido ir). me habría gustado (I would have liked it). debería = would owe = should (deberías venir…). "should/could/would have" all built from the conditional.

  9. 44More masculine -ma/-a nouns; este/ese demonstratives; mano; manejar#

    More masculine words: paradigma, esquema, diagrama, planeta. Demonstratives: este/esta (this), ese/esa (that), plurals estos/esos, estas/esas. Feminine mano (hand); foto/moto (fem, shortened). manejar (to manage/handle/drive). dar una mano (give a hand).

  10. 45gustar with le/les; interesar, parecer; ponerle#

    le gusta / les gusta (he/they like it). Same pattern: interesar (me interesa), parecer (to seem, me parece que…, me parece bien). "Put salt on it" = ponerle sal; sal (salt), un poco (a little), papas fritas.

Part 6

Imperfect & pluperfect pasts; por/para; participles

Tracks 46–55
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  1. 46The three pasts; the imperfect (line) for -ar verbs (-aba)#

    The three pasts: perfect (haber + participle), the "line" (imperfect), the "dot" (preterite). habría + participle (would have). Imperfect of -ar verbs = -aba (hablaba = was speaking / used to speak; -aba/-abas/-aba/-ábamos/-aban).

  2. 47cena/cenar; reflexive se for "get burnt/broken"; todo el tiempo#

    cena (dinner), cenar (to dine). quemar (to burn) → se quema (gets burnt); me quemo en el sol. romper (to break) → se rompe (gets broken). todo el tiempo (all the time), todo (all). cambiar (to change). Demonstratives estos/esos recap.

  3. 48Imperfect of -er/-ir verbs (-ía); se vende; ¿cómo se dice?#

    Imperfect of -er/-ir verbs = -ía (comía, vendía) – same ending as the conditional but built on the stem, not the infinitive. se vende (for sale), ¿cómo se dice? (how do you say?), decir→dice/dicen/decimos, se habla español. quedar = "to have left": me queda uno, me quedan dos. Numbers uno, dos.

  4. 49Imperfect of tener; irregular imperfects (veía, era, iba); ayer#

    tenía (used to have / had), tenía que (had to). ayer (yesterday), cuatro (four). The three irregular imperfects: ver→veía, ser→era/éramos, ir→iba (iba a = was going to). ¿cómo se llamaba? (what was his name?).

  5. 50por vs para; gracias por; día, todos los días; trabajar#

    gracias (thanks), gracias por venir (thanks for coming). por vs para: para = for/destined-for; por = because of / for a period. por qué / porque both use por (because of). razón (reason), por esta razón. día (masc, day), todos los días (every day), tres (three), trabajar (to work).

  6. 51estar + para/por; cambiar por (exchange); false friends#

    estoy para ti (I'm there for you) vs estoy por ti (I'm here because of you). cambiar … por … = exchange one for another. False friends: discutir (to argue, not discuss), actual/actualmente (current/currently, not actual/actually). creer (to believe, creer en). After prepositions use the infinitive (gracias por llamar).

  7. 52para = "in order to"; -ante/-iente adjectives; days of the week#

    para also = "in order to" (hemos hablado para resolverlo). resolver, curso (un curso de español). No -ing after prepositions or as a subject (nadar es saludable). Verb→adjective -ing = -ante/-iente (interesante, irritante, frustrante, viviente). luna (moon) and days: lunes/martes/miércoles/jueves/viernes.

  8. 53podía (past could); the pluperfect había + participle; ya#

    podía = could/was able (past). Pluperfect: había + participle (había comido = I had eaten) – always the "line" past. ya (already). querer in the past = quería (wanted). buscar (to look for).

  9. 54Participles as adjectives (with estar); haber after an infinitive#

    Participles double as adjectives, mostly with estar (está cerrado, estoy perdido). cerrar/cerrado, puerta (door), película (movie). After an infinitive too: me gustaría haber ido. "Es una silla mojada" (naming → ser) vs "la silla está mojada" (state → estar). silla, mojar/mojado.

  10. 55Irregular participles; should/could have; f↔h pairs#

    Irregular participles: roto (romper), muerto (morir), abierto (abrir), dicho (decir), hecho (hacer). debería haber cancelado (should have), podría haber ido (could have). Nouns from participles: un dicho (a saying), un hecho (a fact). fiesta (party), cansar (me canso). f↔h word pairs (hermano/fraternal, humo/fumar).

Part 7

The preterite (simple past); relatives & possession

Tracks 56–68
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  1. 56Prepositions never at sentence end; relatives; cuál, quién#

    Prepositions go before, not at the end (¿de dónde eres?, no sé con quién…). Estados Unidos. Working backwards (unir). chica/chico. Relative "con que / con quien / con la cual". cuál (which one), quién/quiénes (who).

  2. 57lo + adjective ("the … thing"); junto; así; lo de#

    lo + adjective = "the … thing" (lo interesante, lo bueno, lo malo). junto/juntos (together), fácil (easy), malo (bad). así (like this/that). lo de = "the thing about / business of" (lo de la fiesta). sobre (about), manera (manner).

  3. 58The preterite (dot in the past) for -ar verbs (-é / -ó)#

    The preterite: -ar verbs → (I) / (he/she), stressed on the end (hablé, habló; compré, compró). enviar (to send, envié), todavía (still/yet), olvidar (to forget, olvidé). se envió (it was sent). Contrast the stress: HA-blo (present) vs ha-BLÓ (preterite).

  4. 59Preterite of -er/-ir verbs (-í / -ió); que = "than"; negatives#

    Preterite -er/-ir → (I) / -ió (he/she): comí/comió, salí/salió, vi/vio. que also = than (comí más que él). Double negatives: nada (nothing, no vi nada), nadie (nobody). durar→duró, durante (during), minuto, media hora, sin (without), parar (to stop), par (pair, un par de zapatos), comparar.

  5. 60hablamos = "we speak / we spoke"; preterite "we"; a menudo#

    The "we" preterite equals the present for -ar/-ir verbs (hablamos, salimos, vivimos), so context disambiguates; only -er verbs differ (comemos vs comimos). cuando (when), nos perdimos (we got lost), a menudo (often), desesperado (desperate).

  6. 61Line + point together; llegar; me gustó#

    Combining the imperfect (line) with the preterite (point): "I was cooking when the phone rang" – cocinaba cuando sonó el teléfono. teléfono, sonar (to sound/ring), por teléfono. llegar→llegué/llegó (to arrive). me gustó (I liked it) vs me gustaba. parecer→pareció, aparecer (to appear).

  7. 62dar in the preterite; le+lo → se lo; clarifying with a él/a ella#

    dar→di/dio/dimos. When two object pronouns both start with l (le+lo), the first becomes se (se lo di = I gave it to him). Clarify by repeating: le di algo a él / a ella.

  8. 63acordarse (to remember); clarifying gustar#

    acordarse (to remember) → me acuerdo, no me acuerdo (stem o→ue). Clarifying gustar with a él/a ella (le gusta a ella).

  9. 64hace = "ago"; preterite "you"(-aste/-iste) & "they"(-aron/-ieron)#

    hace + time = "ago" (hace dos semanas = two weeks ago). responder, mes (month). Preterite "you informal" = -aste/-iste (hablaste, comiste); "they" = -aron/-ieron (hablaron, comieron). anoche (last night, ≠ tonight). The preterite favours /i/ for -er/-ir (inverse of the present).

  10. 65más = "else"; vez; otra vez; possessives (nuestro, su, propio)#

    más = else (nada más, nadie más). vez (time/occasion): una vez (once), una vez más, otra vez (again), a la vez (at the same time). todos / todo el mundo (everybody). Possessives: tu (your), nuestro/-a (our), su/sus (his/her/their/your-formal), propio (own). ojo (eye), amigo/amiga, cabeza (head via track 66).

  11. 66Possession: doler + body parts; de for 's; solo#

    Spanish uses fewer possessives: "my leg hurts" = me duele la pierna (doler = to hurt). dolor (pain), dolor de cabeza (headache), cabeza (head), pierna (leg). Possession with de: la casa de José. solo (only/just/alone).

  12. 67Reading & written accents#

    The accent rules: word ending in a vowel/n/s → stress the penultimate syllable; ending in any other consonant → stress the last. A written accent marks a broken rule (limón, tradición) or distinguishes identical monosyllables (sí/si, tú/tu, mí/mi, sé/se, dónde/donde, cómo/como). limón (lemon).

  13. 68Demonstratives incl. neuter esto/eso; tan…que; cuánto#

    hombre (man); este/ese hombre, el hombre este. Neuter esto/eso ("this/that" in general): no creo esto. tan … que (so … that): estábamos tan cansados que dormimos todo el día. cuánto (how much), cuántas veces (how many times).

Part 8

The subjunctive (mood tense)

Tracks 69–83
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  1. 69The subjunctive (mood tense): formation & querer que#

    The subjunctive: -ar verbs take -er/-ir endings and vice versa (habla→hable, come→coma). Required after expressions of wanting: quiero que esperes (I want you to wait), ¿quieres que te espere? Focus on the feeling, not just the trigger.

  2. 70lo que; necesitar que, faltar, hace falta, preferir que + subjunctive#

    lo que = "what" (not a question). More subjunctive triggers: necesito que (I need that…), prefiero que (I prefer that…). faltar (to lack/be missing), falta (lack), lo que falta (what's missing), falta de respeto, hace falta (it's necessary). el otro día (the other day).

  3. 71contar; subjunctive after hope/like; the personal "a"; al#

    contar (to count/tell), cuento (I tell / a story), contar con (to count on). Subjunctive after espero que, me gusta que. ver's subjunctive is built on veo → vea/vean. The personal a before a specific person as object (espero que vean a María); a + el = al.

  4. 72Commands with the subjunctive; the informal positive shortcut#

    Negative and formal commands use the subjunctive (no hables, coma, no los esperen). Positive commands attach object pronouns (espérenme, cómalo). Informal positive command = drop the -s (compras→compra, come, vende). ahí/allí (there). callarse (cállate = shut up, cállense). olvidarse.

  5. 73"que + subjunctive" = let…; cuando + subjunctive (future)#

    que + subjunctive = "let him…" (que espere = let him wait, que se calle, que termine ya). cuando + subjunctive for a future event (cuando hablemos = when we [will] speak). ir's subjunctive is irregular: vaya/vayan/vayamos. junto/junta (together).

  6. 74elegir (e→i); por mí; para que + subjunctive; volver; también#

    elegir (to choose)→elijo (e→i); elección. por mí = on my behalf. para que + subjunctive = "so that" (para que vuelvas). encontrarse (to meet up). volver (to return, vuelvo). también (also/too), revolver (to stir). (para can be shortened to "pa" colloquially.)

  7. 75Irregular command haz; the subjunctive for "-ever"; seguir; sea#

    hacer's command is irregular: haz (hazlo). Subjunctive turns words into "-ever": donde quieras (wherever), como te guste (however), lo que prefieras (whatever), cuando necesites (whenever). seguir (to follow/continue, sigo – e→i), conseguir (to get), perseguir (to chase), adonde. ser's subjunctive: sea (o sea = "I mean"; sea lo que sea = whatever it is).

  8. 76hay (there is/are); subjunctive for uncertain existence#

    hay = there is / there are (from haber, invariable). alguien (somebody). Subjunctive when the existence is in question: ¿hay alguien aquí que hable español? but "hay dos personas que hablan español" (stating fact). Past: había (there was/were, invariable). tiene que haber (there has to be).

  9. 77"es + adjective + que + subjunctive"; fuerte; preguntar#

    debería haber (there should be). Pattern es + adjective + que + subjunctive: es terrible que comas, es posible que vayamos, es importante que…, no es necesario que responda. fuerte (strong; "qué fuerte" = how intense). qué + adjective = "how…" (qué lindo, qué bueno). está bien (it's okay). preguntar (to ask).

  10. 78seguir + gerund; empezar a / terminar de + infinitive vs gerund#

    seguir + gerund = to keep doing (sigo hablando). es probable que siga… gratis (free of charge). empezar/comenzar a + infinitive (start to) vs + gerund (start out doing); terminar de + infinitive (finish doing) vs terminar + gerund (end up doing).

  11. 79dejar; ojalá + subjunctive; esencial#

    dejar (to leave [a message/behind]), mensaje (déjeme un mensaje). quiero decirle que + subjunctive (tell him to…). cuando + subjunctive (future). esencial (essential). ojalá (hopefully / God willing) + subjunctive (ojalá sea pronto). llámame.

  12. 80The uses of se; the "accidental" se me/te/le#

    Recap of se: verb sé (I know), reflexive "-self", and the phonetic le+lo→se lo. New: se + me/te/le/nos = the "on me" (unplanned) structure: la puerta se me cierra, la batería se me acaba, se me quemó la cena. acabar (to finish/run out), batería (battery).

  13. 81volver a (again); forming & using the past subjunctive#

    volver a + infinitive = to do again (vuelve a cerrarse). pasar/ocurrir/suceder (to happen). The past subjunctive is built from the "they" preterite: hablaron→hablara, comieron→comiera. Used after past triggers: quería que comieran, esperaba que me llamara (I was hoping he'd call).

  14. 82Past subjunctive after "es/era + adj + que"; avoiding it with "lo … es que"#

    era muy relevante que lo encontraran. Avoid the subjunctive by rephrasing with lo + adjective + es que (lo importante es que…, lo increíble es que vuelven). relevante, increíble (unbelievable), creíble (believable).

  15. 83Conditional "si" sentences; pluperfect subjunctive#

    Hypothetical past after si takes the past subjunctive: si pudiera cocinar, cocinaría. poder→pudieron→pudiera. Pluperfect subjunctive with haber (hub-): si me lo hubieras contado, habría ido. (An alternative -ase/-iese form exists – recognise it.)

Part 9

Irregular verbs & dialect variation

Tracks 84–90
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  1. 84The "-go" verbs; -go → -ga in the subjunctive#

    The -go verbs (tengo, vengo, salgo, pongo, digo, hago, oigo [oír], traigo [traer]) take -ga throughout the subjunctive (tenga, venga…): quiero que vengas. traer → -tract family (atraer, extraer, distraer). venga/vale (come on/okay, Spain), dígame (hello, on the phone).

  2. 85-go verbs: subjunctive commands & the informal shortcut#

    Formal/negative commands use the subjunctive (salga, póngalo, no lo ponga). The informal positive command of a -go verb = drop the -go: ten, ven, sal, pon, di (and haz). dígame / dime (tell me). dime cuando vengas.

  3. 86-go verbs in the future: -dré / -dría#

    -go verbs contract in the future/conditional: tendré/tendría, vendré/vendría, pondré/pondría, saldré/saldría. hacer→haré/haría, decir→diré/diría (extra irregular). poder→podría (e drops) – note podría (could) vs pondría (would put).

  4. 87Irregular pasts: era/iba/veía; the changed-stem preterites#

    Irregular imperfects: era (ser), iba (ir), veía (ver). A group of irregular preterites change their stem, mix -ar/-er endings, and don't stress the ending: tener→tuve/tuvo, estar→estuve/estuvo, decir→dije/dijo. You can dodge them with the imperfect (tenía que ir for tuve que ir).

  5. 88More irregular preterites; fui (ser & ir)#

    poner→puse, hacer→hice/hizo, venir→vine/vino (vino also = wine), traer→traje (also = suit). ser and ir share one preterite: fui/fue/fuimos/fuiste/fueron. Past subjunctive from the "they" form carries the irregularity: si yo fuera tú (if I were you), quería que lo hicieran.

  6. 89Making your own rules: demasiado, el agua, un/algún/ningún#

    Being analytical: demasiado (too/too much) agrees with nouns (demasiadas casas) but not adjectives (demasiado agresiva). Feminine words that are two syllables starting and ending in a take el (el agua, el ala, el aula – but el agua fría shows they're still feminine). uno/alguno/ninguno drop the -o before a masculine noun → un/algún/ningún. agua (water), mujer (woman).

  7. 90Dialect variations; closing#

    Regional variation: le/les for people in Spain (leísmo); vosotros (informal you-plural, Spain); aspirated s; vos with podés/querés (Río de la Plata). hispanohablante (Spanish speaker). Closing: keep practising, listening and analysing – "ahora somos hispanohablantes." practicar, analizar, perfeccionar.