# Language Transfer – Complete Spanish: Lesson Summaries

Topic summaries for all 90 tracks of the Language Transfer *Complete Spanish* course, grouped into 9 thematic parts (the same grouping used for the vocabulary CSVs in this folder). Track 1 is the course introduction and teaches no Spanish.


# Part 1 · Cognates & first sentences (Tracks 1–9)

## Track 1 – Introduction & how to use the course
Overview of Language Transfer's "thinking method." How to study: pause and build each sentence yourself before hearing the student, don't memorize, don't write anything down, study when rested, ~20 min/day, "think slowly to learn quickly." No Spanish taught yet.

## Track 2 – Convertible words (-al) & Spanish pronunciation
English–Spanish cognates ("convertible words"): words ending in **-al** come from Latin and are the same in Spanish, stressed on the last syllable. Spanish vowels are always /ah/ /eh/ /ee/ /oh/ /oo/; Spanish is phonetic. First words: **es** (is), **no** (no/not) and building "it is (not) X."

## Track 3 – More convertible endings (-ante/-ente, -mente, -ible/-able) & the /j/→/kh/ rule
Words ending **-ant/-ent** → **-ante/-ente**; add **-mente** for "-ly"; **-ible/-able** words convert directly. The English /j/ sound becomes a throaty /kh/ (general, global). Notes real = real/royal and normalmente = normally/usually.

## Track 4 – quiero, the -ion & -ation→-ar rules
**te quiero** (I love you, lit. I want you) → **quiero** (I want). Words ending **-ion** are the same with the stress on the end; **-tion** → **-ción**; and dropping **-ción** + adding **-r** gives ~1000 verbs (preparación→preparar). Introduces **con** (with), **me** (me/myself), reflexive infinitives (prepararme).

## Track 5 – yo, word order, lo, the rolling r, -ence/-ance→-encia/-ancia
**yo** (I) used only for emphasis; word order for negation (yo no quiero). Object pronoun **lo** (it/him). Pronunciation of single r vs double rr (**pero** vs **perro**). New rule: **-ence/-ance** → **-encia/-ancia** (experiencia). experimentar = to experiment/experience.

## Track 6 – Silent h, ahora, voy, the v/soft-b sound
The letter **h** is always silent. **ahora** (now) = a (to) + hora (hour). **voy** (I go, irregular) and the v-as-soft-b pronunciation; **vamos** (let's go). Deducing vocab from partial cognates (visitation→visitar).

## Track 7 – voy a + infinitive (near future) & verbs of movement
Using **voy a** + infinitive for the future; verbs of movement (voy, pasar) take an extra **a** before a following infinitive, while non-movement verbs (quiero, intento) don't. New: **ver** (to see), **los** (them), **algo** (something), **mostrar/demostrar** (to show/demonstrate).

## Track 8 – Gender (lo/la), quiere, questions, venir, debo
Feminine **la** (her/it/you-formal-fem); gender belongs to the word, not the object; **casa** (house). **quiere** (he/she/you-formal wants); questions are made by intonation alone. **venir** (to come), **por qué** (why/because), **debo** (I owe → I must), **las** (them, fem).

## Track 9 – saber, sí/si, block-by-block long sentences
**saber** (to know), **sí** (yes) vs **si** (if). Building long nested sentences block by block. Exception: explanation = **explicación**, to explain = **explicar** (not explanación). New: invitar, imaginar, justificar.


# Part 2 · The present tense & stem-changing verbs (Tracks 10–18)

## Track 10 – Verb endings -ar/-er/-ir, forming "I" (-o), tener family
All infinitives end in **-ar/-er/-ir**; the "I" form drops the ending, adds **-o**, and stresses the penultimate syllable. **comer** (to eat), **tener** (to have, irregular **tengo**) and the -tener family (contener, obtener, mantener, sostener, entretener). Present tense can express the future with a time word (mañana). New: tarde, más, más tarde, con.

## Track 11 – -ar verbs across all persons; the productive verb group
The -ar group is the open, productive class (new verbs like tuitear, googlear join it). Key vowel /a/: **-o** (I), **-a** (he/she/it/formal), **-an** (they/you-plural), **-as** (you-informal). Object pronouns (me, lo, la…) go before the conjugated verb, or may attach to an infinitive. New: durar, mucho, exagerar, masticar, morder, hablar.

## Track 12 – -er/-ir verbs (key vowel /e/); feminine noun endings; double objects
-er/-ir verbs use key vowel /e/ (vende/venden/vendes). Feminine noun endings **-ción** and **-idad** (= English -ity); adjectives agree (generoso/-a/-os/-as). Two object pronouns together put the personal one first (**me lo venden**). New: vender, nos (us), and many -idad nouns.

## Track 13 – hacer, qué, poder, irregular -go, esperar; -ary→-ario
**hacer** (to do/make), **qué** (what), **¿qué haces?** as "how's it going?". **puedo/poder** (I can/to be able). Irregular "-go" I-forms (salgo). **esperar** (to wait/hope); the vowel-harmony trap – always return to the infinitive. Rule: -ary → **-ario** (necesario, contrario). New: comprar, llegar.

## Track 14 – sé, él/ella, tener que, poner & the -pose family
Irregular **sé** (I know); **él** (he), **ella** (she), ll = /y/. **tener que** = have to (tengo que); full tener/venir person forms. **poner** (to put, pongo) and the **-pose→poner** family (componer, suponer, imponer, exponer, oponer). Contrast **debo** (must) vs **tengo que** (have to). New: cuándo.

## Track 15 – The e→ie stem change explained; pensar, entender, perder
When a stressed **e** in the verb root splits into **ie** (querer→quiero, tener→tiene, venir→viene). Visible between languages: tempo/tiempo, concert/concierto, November/noviembre. **pensar** (to think; pensar + infinitive = to plan to), **entender** (to understand), **comprender**, **perder** (to lose).

## Track 16 – The o→ue stem change; empezar; dormir, encontrar, mostrar
Stressed root **o** splits into **ue** (poder→puedo). Seen between languages: port/puerto, force/fuerza, school/escuela, corp/cuerpo, new/nuevo, pueblo, población, muerte/muerto. **empezar** (to start), **dormir→duermo** (me duermo = I fall asleep), **encontrar→encuentro** (to find), **mostrar→muestro** (una muestra = a sample).

## Track 17 – Stem-change recap; colgar; Arabic al- words; tomar
Recap of e→ie (querer, perder) and o→ue (colgar→cuelgo, to hang). Words beginning **al-** come from Arabic (alcohol, azúcar, arroz, álgebra, aceite, aceituna, alfombra, almohada). **tomar** (to take, also to drink); beber, bebida.

## Track 18 – The "we" forms: -amos / -emos / -imos
"We" endings: **-amos / -emos / -imos** – the only place -er and -ir verbs differ. Stem vowels don't split in the "we" form (no stress). **preferir** (prefiero/preferimos), **vivir** (to live), **aquí/acá** (here), **dónde** (where), **siempre** (always). New: verano.


# Part 3 · The perfect past (haber) & the pronoun system (Tracks 19–24)

## Track 19 – Working backwards from vamos; ir; noche, carne, y
Deriving va/vas/van by working backwards from **vamos**; **ir** (to go, very irregular). Future/time words: **esta noche** (tonight). Feminine nouns ending -e: **noche**, **carne** (meat). **y** (and), **bueno** (good), **bien** (well).

## Track 20 – Future with the present tense; ver forms; next week
Talking about the future with the present, either via time context (**pronto** = soon; mañana, más tarde, esta noche) or **ir a** + infinitive (vamos a verla). Full forms of **ver** (veo/ve/ves/vemos/ven). **la semana que viene** (next week), **semana** (week), **nos vemos** (see you).

## Track 21 – The perfect past with haber; -ado participles
Talking about the past with the present of **haber** (to have, auxiliary): he/hemos/ha/has/han (remembered from the vowels of haber). Past participle of -ar verbs = drop -ar, add **-ado** (hablar→hablado). This "have"-past is used more in Spanish than English. **por** (for, of duration), **por favor** (please). New: anticipar, terminar.

## Track 22 – -ido participles; the two pronoun sets
Participles of -er/-ir verbs end in **-ido** (vendido, perdido, venido). Introduces the full subject-pronoun set – **yo, tú, usted, él, ella, nosotros/nosotras, ellos/ellas, ustedes** – versus the object set (me, te, lo, la, los, las, nos). tú vs te = subject vs object "you".

## Track 23 – Masculine -ma nouns (Greek); sentir; reflexive perfect
Words ending **-ma** are masculine (from Greek): **el problema, el sistema, el programa, el aroma, el clima, el panorama**. **sentir** (to feel/perceive). Reflexive perfect: **me he perdido** (I got lost), nos hemos perdido.

## Track 24 – dar; combining indirect + direct objects
**dar** (to give; doy/da/dan/das). Combining two object pronouns, personal one first: **me lo dan** (they give it to me), te lo doy mañana. **ustedes** (you-plural). Word order of usted/yo/él is very flexible.


# Part 4 · Reflexives, numbers, time & ser vs estar (Tracks 25–35)

## Track 25 – me/te/nos as "to/for/from me"; cooking; time; quedar; numbers 6–10
Object pronouns also cover to/for/from (no separate word): me habla, me lo compra. **cocina** (kitchen), **cocinar** (to cook). Telling time: **a las seis** (at 6). Numbers **seis, ocho, nueve, diez**. **quedar** (to remain) → **me quedo** (I stay); **hasta** (until), hasta la vista.

## Track 26 – quedarse; deber; poder (we); numbers; llamarse
Reflexive **quedarse** across persons (voy a quedarme, tengo que quedarme). **deber/debemos**, **poder/podemos**. **siete** (seven), septiembre. **llamar** (to call/phone) → **me llamo** (my name is), **¿cómo te llamas?** (what's your name?), **cómo** (how).

## Track 27 – Adjectives after the noun; a/the; words for "car"; colours
Adjectives follow the noun (**la situación global**). Articles **un/una** (a), el/la/los/las (the). Many words for car: **coche, carro, auto, automóvil, máquina**. **grande** (big), plural adjectives (grandes). **en** (in/on), **rojo** (red).

## Track 28 – ser: es/son; adjective agreement; -ive→-ivo; muy
**es/son** (is/are, from ser); adjective agreement caro/cara/caros/caras. **caro** (expensive) vs carro (car). Nouns like **profesor/profesora, doctor/doctora**; consonant plurals in -es. Rule -ive → **-ivo** (positivo, atractivo, intensivo…). **muy** (very). Slang for money: dinero, plata, pasta.

## Track 29 – ser vs estar: characteristic vs state; estar forms
The two "to be" verbs: **ser** (characteristics) vs **estar** (states) – not "permanent vs temporary." **un ser humano** (a human being). estar forms: **estoy/está/están/estás/estamos** (irregular stress on the ending). **cansado** (tired) and **muerto** (dead) take estar (states).

## Track 30 – Using estar: how/where are you; deber for probability; porque
**¿cómo estás?** (how are you), **¿dónde estás?** (where are you) – estados use estar. Future/other verbs with estar (voy a estar, tienen que estar). **debe/deben** for probability ("must be"). **porque** (because) vs por qué (why).

## Track 31 – e- before s+consonant; ser fully; the four -oy verbs; ¿cómo es? vs ¿cómo está?
Spanish adds **e-** before words starting s+consonant (España, español, estudiante, especial, estricto, espectacular). Full **ser**: soy/es/son/somos/eres. The only four **-oy** "I" forms: voy, doy, estoy, soy. **¿cómo es?** (what's he like – characteristic) vs ¿cómo está? (how is he – state).

## Track 32 – ser/estar with the same adjective; de; free/married/busy/worried
Adjectives whose meaning flips with ser/estar (**aburrido** = boring vs bored). **de** (from/of). **libre** (free), **casado** (married), **ocupado** (busy), **preocupado** (worried). **de dónde** (where from); ¿de dónde eres? Using "soy una persona…" as a safety net.

## Track 33 – More ser/estar nuance; listo; tan; bueno; feliz
**listo** = ready (estar) / smart (ser). **tan** (so). **bueno** with people: ser = a good person/good at; estar = attractive/in good form. **feliz** (happy), **felicidad** (happiness), feliz navidad.

## Track 34 – Present continuous (estar + gerund)
Right-now actions: **estar + gerund**. Gerund = -ar→**-ando** (hablando), -er/-ir→**-iendo** (comiendo). Used only for what's happening now (not the future, unlike English -ing). **desayunar** (to have breakfast), desayuno. Objects attach to the gerund (estoy preparándolo).

## Track 35 – estar + siendo; honesto
**estoy siendo sincero** (I am being sincere) – gerund of ser is **siendo**. **honesto** (honest). More practice resisting English -ing where Spanish uses the plain present.


# Part 5 · Future & conditional; gustar-type verbs; prepositions (Tracks 36–45)

## Track 36 – The future tense (infinitive + haber endings)
Future = whole infinitive + **-é/-emos/-á/-ás/-án** (the haber sounds), stressed on the end – "pushing the accent into the future": comeré, iré, será, estaré. Also **recomendar**. Note the future tense is used less than present / ir a.

## Track 37 – Indirect object le/les; darse cuenta
**le/les** = to him/her/them/you-formal (lo,la,los,las become le,les when the sense is "to/for"). **me doy cuenta** (I realize), **darse cuenta**, **cuenta** (account), ¿te das cuenta? le he hablado (I've spoken to him).

## Track 38 – Reflexive se; quedarse & darse cuenta across persons
**se** = himself/herself/itself/themselves/oneself (lo/la/los/las → se for "-self"). se queda (he stays), quedarse, quiere quedarse; se da cuenta. Dictionary lists reflexive verbs as ...-se.

## Track 39 – Prepositions + pronouns; para; mí/ti; decir
Prepositions take subject pronouns (con él, para él) except **mí** and **ti** (para mí, para ti, de mí, de ti). **para** (for). "with you guys" = location → **está** con ustedes. **hacer un favor**; **decir** (to say/tell), quiero decir. le/les replace to/for (les compro).

## Track 40 – Prepositions differ across languages; enamorarse, pensar en, soñar con; conmigo/contigo
Verbs pick different prepositions: **enamorarse de** (fall in love "of"), **pensar en** (think "in/on"), **soñar con** (dream "with"). **soñar→sueño**. The letter **ñ**. **conmigo** (with me), **contigo** (with you); **depender de** (depend on).

## Track 41 – The conditional ("would"); reflexive se for "get/become"
The conditional: infinitive + **-ía/-ías/-ía/-íamos/-ían** (I joins he/she). **bailar** (to dance), bailaré/bailaría. Reflexive **se** to express "get/become": se transforma (gets transformed), se contamina (gets contaminated). **que** = that. me imagino que…

## Track 42 – gustar ("to be pleasing"); podría (could)
**gustar** works backwards: **me gusta** = "it pleases me" = I like it; me gustan (plural). **me gustaría** (I would like). Contracted conditional **podría** (could). **mi** (my), mi casa.

## Track 43 – habría (would have); debería (should)
**habría** + participle = would have (habría ido, habría podido ir). **me habría gustado** (I would have liked it). **debería** = would owe = **should** (deberías venir…). "should/could/would have" all built from the conditional.

## Track 44 – More masculine -ma/-a nouns; este/ese demonstratives; mano; manejar
More masculine words: paradigma, esquema, diagrama, **planeta**. Demonstratives: **este/esta** (this), **ese/esa** (that), plurals estos/esos, estas/esas. Feminine **mano** (hand); **foto/moto** (fem, shortened). **manejar** (to manage/handle/drive). dar una mano (give a hand).

## Track 45 – gustar with le/les; interesar, parecer; ponerle
**le gusta / les gusta** (he/they like it). Same pattern: **interesar** (me interesa), **parecer** (to seem, me parece que…, me parece bien). "Put salt on it" = **ponerle sal**; **sal** (salt), **un poco** (a little), papas fritas.


# Part 6 · Imperfect & pluperfect pasts; por/para; participles (Tracks 46–55)

## Track 46 – The three pasts; the imperfect (line) for -ar verbs (-aba)
The three pasts: perfect (haber + participle), the "line" (imperfect), the "dot" (preterite). habría + participle (would have). Imperfect of -ar verbs = **-aba** (hablaba = was speaking / used to speak; -aba/-abas/-aba/-ábamos/-aban).

## Track 47 – cena/cenar; reflexive se for "get burnt/broken"; todo el tiempo
**cena** (dinner), **cenar** (to dine). **quemar** (to burn) → se quema (gets burnt); me quemo en el sol. **romper** (to break) → se rompe (gets broken). **todo el tiempo** (all the time), **todo** (all). cambiar (to change). Demonstratives estos/esos recap.

## Track 48 – Imperfect of -er/-ir verbs (-ía); se vende; ¿cómo se dice?
Imperfect of -er/-ir verbs = **-ía** (comía, vendía) – same ending as the conditional but built on the stem, not the infinitive. **se vende** (for sale), **¿cómo se dice?** (how do you say?), decir→dice/dicen/decimos, se habla español. quedar = "to have left": me queda uno, me quedan dos. Numbers uno, dos.

## Track 49 – Imperfect of tener; irregular imperfects (veía, era, iba); ayer
**tenía** (used to have / had), **tenía que** (had to). **ayer** (yesterday), **cuatro** (four). The three irregular imperfects: **ver→veía**, **ser→era/éramos**, **ir→iba** (iba a = was going to). ¿cómo se llamaba? (what was his name?).

## Track 50 – por vs para; gracias por; día, todos los días; trabajar
**gracias** (thanks), **gracias por venir** (thanks for coming). **por** vs **para**: para = for/destined-for; por = because of / for a period. por qué / porque both use por (because of). **razón** (reason), por esta razón. **día** (masc, day), **todos los días** (every day), **tres** (three), **trabajar** (to work).

## Track 51 – estar + para/por; cambiar por (exchange); false friends
**estoy para ti** (I'm there for you) vs **estoy por ti** (I'm here because of you). **cambiar … por …** = exchange one for another. False friends: **discutir** (to argue, not discuss), **actual/actualmente** (current/currently, not actual/actually). **creer** (to believe, creer en). After prepositions use the infinitive (gracias por llamar).

## Track 52 – para = "in order to"; -ante/-iente adjectives; days of the week
**para** also = "in order to" (hemos hablado para resolverlo). **resolver**, **curso** (un curso de español). No -ing after prepositions or as a subject (nadar es saludable). Verb→adjective -ing = **-ante/-iente** (interesante, irritante, frustrante, viviente). **luna** (moon) and days: lunes/martes/miércoles/jueves/viernes.

## Track 53 – podía (past could); the pluperfect había + participle; ya
**podía** = could/was able (past). Pluperfect: **había** + participle (había comido = I had eaten) – always the "line" past. **ya** (already). querer in the past = **quería** (wanted). **buscar** (to look for).

## Track 54 – Participles as adjectives (with estar); haber after an infinitive
Participles double as adjectives, mostly with **estar** (está cerrado, estoy perdido). **cerrar/cerrado**, **puerta** (door), **película** (movie). After an infinitive too: me gustaría **haber ido**. "Es una silla mojada" (naming → ser) vs "la silla está mojada" (state → estar). **silla**, **mojar/mojado**.

## Track 55 – Irregular participles; should/could have; f↔h pairs
Irregular participles: **roto** (romper), **muerto** (morir), **abierto** (abrir), **dicho** (decir), **hecho** (hacer). **debería haber cancelado** (should have), **podría haber ido** (could have). Nouns from participles: **un dicho** (a saying), **un hecho** (a fact). **fiesta** (party), **cansar** (me canso). f↔h word pairs (hermano/fraternal, humo/fumar).


# Part 7 · The preterite (simple past); relatives & possession (Tracks 56–68)

## Track 56 – Prepositions never at sentence end; relatives; cuál, quién
Prepositions go before, not at the end (¿de dónde eres?, no sé con quién…). **Estados Unidos**. Working backwards (unir). **chica/chico**. Relative "con que / con quien / con la cual". **cuál** (which one), **quién/quiénes** (who).

## Track 57 – lo + adjective ("the … thing"); junto; así; lo de
**lo + adjective** = "the … thing" (**lo interesante**, lo bueno, lo malo). **junto/juntos** (together), **fácil** (easy), **malo** (bad). **así** (like this/that). **lo de** = "the thing about / business of" (lo de la fiesta). **sobre** (about), **manera** (manner).

## Track 58 – The preterite (dot in the past) for -ar verbs (-é / -ó)
The preterite: -ar verbs → **-é** (I) / **-ó** (he/she), stressed on the end (hablé, habló; compré, compró). **enviar** (to send, envié), **todavía** (still/yet), **olvidar** (to forget, olvidé). se envió (it was sent). Contrast the stress: HA-blo (present) vs ha-BLÓ (preterite).

## Track 59 – Preterite of -er/-ir verbs (-í / -ió); que = "than"; negatives
Preterite -er/-ir → **-í** (I) / **-ió** (he/she): comí/comió, salí/salió, **vi/vio**. **que** also = **than** (comí más que él). Double negatives: **nada** (nothing, no vi nada), **nadie** (nobody). **durar→duró**, **durante** (during), **minuto**, **media hora**, **sin** (without), **parar** (to stop), **par** (pair, un par de zapatos), comparar.

## Track 60 – hablamos = "we speak / we spoke"; preterite "we"; a menudo
The "we" preterite equals the present for -ar/-ir verbs (**hablamos**, salimos, vivimos), so context disambiguates; only -er verbs differ (comemos vs **comimos**). **cuando** (when), **nos perdimos** (we got lost), **a menudo** (often), desesperado (desperate).

## Track 61 – Line + point together; llegar; me gustó
Combining the imperfect (line) with the preterite (point): "I was cooking when the phone rang" – **cocinaba cuando sonó el teléfono**. **teléfono**, **sonar** (to sound/ring), **por teléfono**. **llegar→llegué/llegó** (to arrive). **me gustó** (I liked it) vs me gustaba. **parecer→pareció**, aparecer (to appear).

## Track 62 – dar in the preterite; le+lo → se lo; clarifying with a él/a ella
**dar→di/dio/dimos**. When two object pronouns both start with l (le+lo), the first becomes **se** (se lo di = I gave it to him). Clarify by repeating: le di algo **a él / a ella**.

## Track 63 – acordarse (to remember); clarifying gustar
**acordarse** (to remember) → me acuerdo, no me acuerdo (stem o→ue). Clarifying gustar with a él/a ella (le gusta a ella).

## Track 64 – hace = "ago"; preterite "you"(-aste/-iste) & "they"(-aron/-ieron)
**hace** + time = "ago" (hace dos semanas = two weeks ago). **responder**, **mes** (month). Preterite "you informal" = **-aste/-iste** (hablaste, comiste); "they" = **-aron/-ieron** (hablaron, comieron). **anoche** (last night, ≠ tonight). The preterite favours /i/ for -er/-ir (inverse of the present).

## Track 65 – más = "else"; vez; otra vez; possessives (nuestro, su, propio)
**más** = else (nada más, nadie más). **vez** (time/occasion): una vez (once), una vez más, **otra vez** (again), a la vez (at the same time). **todos / todo el mundo** (everybody). Possessives: **tu** (your), **nuestro/-a** (our), **su/sus** (his/her/their/your-formal), **propio** (own). **ojo** (eye), **amigo/amiga**, **cabeza** (head via track 66).

## Track 66 – Possession: doler + body parts; de for 's; solo
Spanish uses fewer possessives: "my leg hurts" = **me duele la pierna** (doler = to hurt). **dolor** (pain), **dolor de cabeza** (headache), **cabeza** (head), **pierna** (leg). Possession with **de**: la casa de José. **solo** (only/just/alone).

## Track 67 – Reading & written accents
The accent rules: word ending in a vowel/n/s → stress the penultimate syllable; ending in any other consonant → stress the last. A **written accent** marks a broken rule (limón, tradición) or distinguishes identical monosyllables (sí/si, tú/tu, mí/mi, sé/se, dónde/donde, cómo/como). **limón** (lemon).

## Track 68 – Demonstratives incl. neuter esto/eso; tan…que; cuánto
**hombre** (man); este/ese hombre, el hombre este. Neuter **esto/eso** ("this/that" in general): no creo esto. **tan … que** (so … that): estábamos tan cansados que dormimos **todo el día**. **cuánto** (how much), **cuántas veces** (how many times).


# Part 8 · The subjunctive (mood tense) (Tracks 69–83)

## Track 69 – The subjunctive (mood tense): formation & querer que
The subjunctive: -ar verbs take -er/-ir endings and vice versa (habla→**hable**, come→**coma**). Required after expressions of wanting: **quiero que esperes** (I want you to wait), ¿quieres que te espere? Focus on the *feeling*, not just the trigger.

## Track 70 – lo que; necesitar que, faltar, hace falta, preferir que + subjunctive
**lo que** = "what" (not a question). More subjunctive triggers: **necesito que** (I need that…), **prefiero que** (I prefer that…). **faltar** (to lack/be missing), **falta** (lack), **lo que falta** (what's missing), **falta de respeto**, **hace falta** (it's necessary). **el otro día** (the other day).

## Track 71 – contar; subjunctive after hope/like; the personal "a"; al
**contar** (to count/tell), cuento (I tell / a story), **contar con** (to count on). Subjunctive after **espero que**, me gusta que. ver's subjunctive is built on veo → **vea/vean**. The **personal a** before a specific person as object (espero que vean **a** María); **a + el = al**.

## Track 72 – Commands with the subjunctive; the informal positive shortcut
Negative and formal commands use the subjunctive (**no hables**, coma, no los esperen). Positive commands attach object pronouns (espérenme, cómalo). **Informal positive command = drop the -s** (compras→**compra**, come, vende). **ahí/allí** (there). **callarse** (cállate = shut up, cállense). olvidarse.

## Track 73 – "que + subjunctive" = let…; cuando + subjunctive (future)
**que + subjunctive** = "let him…" (que espere = let him wait, que se calle, que termine ya). **cuando + subjunctive** for a future event (cuando hablemos = when we [will] speak). ir's subjunctive is irregular: **vaya/vayan/vayamos**. junto/junta (together).

## Track 74 – elegir (e→i); por mí; para que + subjunctive; volver; también
**elegir** (to choose)→**elijo** (e→i); elección. **por mí** = on my behalf. **para que** + subjunctive = "so that" (para que vuelvas). **encontrarse** (to meet up). **volver** (to return, vuelvo). **también** (also/too), revolver (to stir). (para can be shortened to "pa" colloquially.)

## Track 75 – Irregular command haz; the subjunctive for "-ever"; seguir; sea
hacer's command is irregular: **haz** (hazlo). Subjunctive turns words into "-ever": **donde quieras** (wherever), como te guste (however), **lo que prefieras** (whatever), cuando necesites (whenever). **seguir** (to follow/continue, sigo – e→i), conseguir (to get), perseguir (to chase), **adonde**. ser's subjunctive: **sea** (o sea = "I mean"; sea lo que sea = whatever it is).

## Track 76 – hay (there is/are); subjunctive for uncertain existence
**hay** = there is / there are (from haber, invariable). **alguien** (somebody). Subjunctive when the existence is in question: ¿hay alguien aquí que **hable** español? but "hay dos personas que **hablan** español" (stating fact). Past: **había** (there was/were, invariable). **tiene que haber** (there has to be).

## Track 77 – "es + adjective + que + subjunctive"; fuerte; preguntar
**debería haber** (there should be). Pattern **es + adjective + que + subjunctive**: es terrible que comas, es posible que vayamos, es importante que…, no es necesario que responda. **fuerte** (strong; "**qué fuerte**" = how intense). qué + adjective = "how…" (qué lindo, qué bueno). **está bien** (it's okay). **preguntar** (to ask).

## Track 78 – seguir + gerund; empezar a / terminar de + infinitive vs gerund
**seguir + gerund** = to keep doing (**sigo hablando**). es probable que siga… **gratis** (free of charge). **empezar/comenzar a** + infinitive (start to) vs + gerund (start out doing); **terminar de** + infinitive (finish doing) vs terminar + gerund (**end up** doing).

## Track 79 – dejar; ojalá + subjunctive; esencial
**dejar** (to leave [a message/behind]), **mensaje** (déjeme un mensaje). quiero decirle que + subjunctive (tell him to…). cuando + subjunctive (future). **esencial** (essential). **ojalá** (hopefully / God willing) + subjunctive (ojalá sea pronto). llámame.

## Track 80 – The uses of se; the "accidental" se me/te/le
Recap of **se**: verb sé (I know), reflexive "-self", and the phonetic le+lo→**se lo**. New: **se + me/te/le/nos** = the "on me" (unplanned) structure: la puerta **se me** cierra, la batería **se me** acaba, se me quemó la cena. **acabar** (to finish/run out), **batería** (battery).

## Track 81 – volver a (again); forming & using the past subjunctive
**volver a** + infinitive = to do again (vuelve a cerrarse). **pasar/ocurrir/suceder** (to happen). The **past subjunctive** is built from the "they" preterite: hablaron→**hablara**, comieron→**comiera**. Used after past triggers: **quería que** comieran, esperaba que me llamara (I was hoping he'd call).

## Track 82 – Past subjunctive after "es/era + adj + que"; avoiding it with "lo … es que"
era muy relevante que lo encontraran. Avoid the subjunctive by rephrasing with **lo + adjective + es que** (lo importante es que…, lo increíble es que vuelven). **relevante**, **increíble** (unbelievable), creíble (believable).

## Track 83 – Conditional "si" sentences; pluperfect subjunctive
Hypothetical past after **si** takes the past subjunctive: **si pudiera cocinar, cocinaría**. poder→pudieron→**pudiera**. Pluperfect subjunctive with haber (hub-): **si me lo hubieras contado, habría ido**. (An alternative -ase/-iese form exists – recognise it.)


# Part 9 · Irregular verbs & dialect variation (Tracks 84–90)

## Track 84 – The "-go" verbs; -go → -ga in the subjunctive
The **-go** verbs (tengo, vengo, salgo, pongo, **digo**, **hago**, **oigo** [oír], **traigo** [traer]) take **-ga** throughout the subjunctive (tenga, venga…): quiero que vengas. traer → -tract family (atraer, extraer, distraer). venga/vale (come on/okay, Spain), dígame (hello, on the phone).

## Track 85 – -go verbs: subjunctive commands & the informal shortcut
Formal/negative commands use the subjunctive (salga, póngalo, no lo ponga). The informal positive command of a -go verb = **drop the -go**: **ten, ven, sal, pon, di** (and haz). dígame / **dime** (tell me). dime cuando vengas.

## Track 86 – -go verbs in the future: -dré / -dría
-go verbs contract in the future/conditional: **tendré/tendría, vendré/vendría, pondré/pondría, saldré/saldría**. hacer→**haré/haría**, decir→**diré/diría** (extra irregular). poder→**podría** (e drops) – note podría (could) vs pondría (would put).

## Track 87 – Irregular pasts: era/iba/veía; the changed-stem preterites
Irregular imperfects: **era** (ser), **iba** (ir), **veía** (ver). A group of irregular preterites change their stem, mix -ar/-er endings, and don't stress the ending: tener→**tuve/tuvo**, estar→**estuve/estuvo**, decir→**dije/dijo**. You can dodge them with the imperfect (tenía que ir for tuve que ir).

## Track 88 – More irregular preterites; fui (ser & ir)
poner→**puse**, hacer→**hice/hizo**, venir→**vine/vino** (vino also = wine), traer→**traje** (also = suit). **ser and ir share one preterite**: **fui/fue/fuimos/fuiste/fueron**. Past subjunctive from the "they" form carries the irregularity: **si yo fuera tú** (if I were you), quería que lo hicieran.

## Track 89 – Making your own rules: demasiado, el agua, un/algún/ningún
Being analytical: **demasiado** (too/too much) agrees with nouns (demasiadas casas) but not adjectives (demasiado agresiva). Feminine words that are two syllables starting and ending in a take **el** (**el agua**, el ala, el aula – but el agua fría shows they're still feminine). **uno/alguno/ninguno** drop the -o before a masculine noun → **un/algún/ningún**. **agua** (water), **mujer** (woman).

## Track 90 – Dialect variations; closing
Regional variation: **le/les** for people in Spain (leísmo); **vosotros** (informal you-plural, Spain); aspirated s; **vos** with podés/querés (Río de la Plata). **hispanohablante** (Spanish speaker). Closing: keep practising, listening and analysing – "ahora somos hispanohablantes." **practicar, analizar, perfeccionar**.